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Lisa was born in France. Since she left her parents' house, the whole world has somehow become her home. Among other things, she also studied German for several years at the University of Heidelberg in Germany. She would now like to publish her first works, in which she focused particularly on the historical and cultural background of clothing, here!
We don't know which region or culture our readers come from. But perhaps it would be quite interesting for some people to find out about developments in the fashion world from a European perspective.
Lisa would be very happy if you had a little fun reading her texts...
The profession of the shoemaker in Germany
The
official name of
this apprenticeship in Germany is Schumacher. However, the common names
for this craft such as cobbler and shoe boss are on a par. Perhaps the
job title cobbler is no longer used as often, as the verb 'scobbler'
has tended to mean botched work since the 17th century. The
“zuschustern” (secretly sending) could also be
associated
with this. The main activity of the shoemaker is the manufacture and
repair of shoes.
But there are also a number of specialist areas in the shoe trade, most of which have become independent apprenticeships. The clog maker was still around until shortly before the Second World War. It was quite common as wooden shoes were quite common until then. There are orthopedic shoemakers and orthopedic technicians for the production of shoes that are intended to meet a medical indication. The professions of shoe maker and shoe and leather goods stepper (also called leather processing specialist) are typical for industrial shoe production.
Other professions that emerged as a result of the industrialization of this craft include shoe modeller, shoe fitter, shoe technologist, last maker, upper leather cutter and upper leather maker. However, these professions are becoming rarer again in Germany as the best-selling footwear is imported.
As early as the fifth century BC, the professions of tanner and shoemaker separated. In ancient Greece people spoke of leather workers or leather tailors. In ancient Rome, shoemakers were called leather sewers (Sutor) or sandal makers (Sandalarius). The Calceolarius was the highest ranked here. He knew how to make Calceus a type of sandal that was more complex to produce. At the lowest end of the hierarchy scale were the Sutor Cerdo or Sutriballus, who in German would be called cobbler and the Altmacher, who bought up discarded shoes, repaired them and sold them again.
The shoemaker's tools have hardly changed for centuries. However, it was supplemented by some machines, such as the pneumatic press, in today's industrial shoe production. Hammer (for tapping work), pliers (for pulling out the nails), wide pliers (for pulling the shaft over the last), narrow pliers or folding pliers (for distributing the upper leather folds on the toe and heel), pinch knife (for trimming the soles and heels ), whetstone (for sharpening the pub), sharpening steel (for re-sharpening), rasp (here additionally wrapped with sandpaper, for working on the soles and heels), tack lifter (for pulling out the nails), pointed bone (for pressing down and opening the cut), Crack opener (for clearing the cut in the sole), crack scraper (for lowering the cut), cross awl (for pre-piercing the bottom seam holes), steel and pig bristles (as sewing needles), roughener (for preparing the adhesive surfaces), edge knife (for Deburring/deburring the sole edges), round awl/nail location (for pre-piercing the holes for the wooden nails), glass shards or scrapers (for removing the leather scars), cleaning wood (for pressing the sole edges) are the most important tools in shoe making.
Classic shoemaker workshops can hardly be found in cities these days. Many a shoe repair shop has remained. Most of the trained shoemakers work there today. Many new tools and materials have been added. Leather and rubber are hardly used anymore. However, many new adhesives and bonding techniques are necessary. There is significantly more sanding and gluing than sewing. The large, global shoe manufacturers now set the tone in this industry with their production methods.
In the earlier class society it was not up to everyone to decide how they wanted to dress. People of different classes were simply assigned the way in which they had to dress. So a form of uniformity. The first things that come to mind are courtly, bourgeois and rural clothing. The countless craftsmen's costumes (e.g. those of the carpenter) and the many religious costumes represent only a fraction of the diversity of this genre.
Nowadays, apart from the professional groups that are required to wear a uniform (fire brigade, military, police, etc.) or work clothes (medicine, nursing, law enforcement, officials, etc.) from the outset, such an official dress code no longer exists . However, in the various milieus of our society there are sometimes very binding conventions about what clothing is appropriate. In their free time, people also like to wear certain clothing styles and accessories that are intended to express their belonging to a scene (e.g. punk, popper, rocker, hippi, eco, etc.). This form of freedom previously only existed in carnival.
Clothing that is intended to strengthen cohesion in a group can also be found in private companies and organizations (divides), in religions (headscarf, burqa, cassock, gown, etc.), in special legal relationships (e.g. prisoners in prison) and in clubs (traditional costumes, Color, jersey). To name just a few examples here.
In addition to all these ranking functions, the original protective function of clothing, e.g. in adverse weather conditions, should not be forgotten. As a “second skin”, clothing protects and covers and also serves to express one’s own individuality. The purchase of a specific item of clothing can be done from very different perspectives.
Some people pay great attention to ensuring that the clothing corresponds to current fashion and/or comes from a popular brand. For the other, it is important that the functionality and feel-good components are consistent. There can be very different motives behind this, such as pragmatism, pursuit of pleasure, desire for integration through assimilation, expression of feelings and moods, desire for well-being, imposing behavior, expression of one's own lifestyle, expression of self-image about one's own social status, non-conformism, rebellion, etc.
There are three theories in science as to why humans have a need to clothe themselves. The oldest of these is the protection theory. In the 19th century, the shame theory became widespread in connection with Christian moral concepts. Last but not least, there is the jewelry theory, which states that you dress to deliberately attract attention in order to be admired. Today it is assumed that these theories should not be viewed side by side, but rather intertwined.
When it comes to nightwear, sooner or later the figure of the German Michel, who has been mentioned repeatedly since 1541, comes to mind with his nightcap. But unfortunately I couldn't find anything about whether the sleepwear at the time really looked like that.
The pajamas, which are widely used today, were discovered by the British colonial rulers in India. These were light trousers that were held together at the waist with a cord or cummerbund and a light shirt with a button placket. Then, in the middle of the 17th century, the British brought this clothing to mainland Europe. For a while, these pajamas were also accepted as leisure suits. But then this piece of clothing was forgotten again.
Only after 1870, when trade between India and Great Britain flourished again, did pajamas largely replace nightgowns as sleepwear until the end of the First World War. Thanks to colonial trade in Europe, silk and cotton, as comfortable fabrics, were now sufficiently available for production. The term pajama is derived from the Persian word “پايجامه / pāīdschāma / trousers”.
Today's pajamas consist of leg-length, wide-cut trousers and a long-sleeved top. This is often cut like a T-shirt and no longer has buttons. The pants are held on the body by an elastic band. There are also versions with short sleeves or legs, these are often referred to as 'shorty'. The materials are diverse: cotton, merino wool, flannel, jersey, terry cloth, silk or satin and numerous blends (cotton with viscose or with polyester) are established textile fabrics.
Recently, it has become fashionable to wear pajamas in public as a lifestyle outfit. But this isn't really new, because there have been a few attempts in the past, especially by celebrities, to establish the "pyjamas" in public: the fashion designer Coco Chanel made it popular in Juan-les-Pins in France in the 1920s Riviera caused a stir with her public appearances in “beach pajamas,” consisting of a loose shirt and fluttery pants. She was then banned from entering the local casino in this look. - When Bette Davis wore her husband's pajama top as a nightgown in the 1942 film “Old Acquaintance,” it caused quite a stir. After the film's premiere, men's sleepwear for women was a passing trend. - Playboy publisher Hugh Hefner is also said to have practiced the “out of bed” look in public. Apparently as an act of rebellion against the established dress norm and prudery.
In some areas, such as Shanghai, from the 1970s onwards it became common to wear pajamas around the neighborhood and also when shopping. At the 2010 World Expo, the Chinese government made great efforts to stop this “uncivilized” custom. The Chinese adopted pajamas from the West as a symbol of wealth and coolness. In England, where this was common practice for a long time, the department store chain 'Tesco' banned its customers from wearing pajamas.
Jewelry is an ornamental item that women and men wear on their bodies or clothing. It is primarily used to increase the attractiveness or status of a person within a society or group or to visibly display the status they have already achieved. One thinks in particular of the crown jewels of the ruling families. On the one hand, jewelry is tied to the fascination of the material, such as the metal with its shine or the value, color and cut of the gemstone used, and on the other hand to the shape of the jewelry and the quality of the workmanship.
For as long as humans have existed, they have been using objects, such as shells, to decorate themselves. Research suggests that this has been going on for 100,000 years. In the Paleolithic period there were said to have been necklaces in the form of simple and multi-link necklaces. In the Stone Age, people made their necklaces from shells and snail shells, animal teeth, fish vertebrae and beads. Amber has also been made into jewelry. When it became possible to process copper and bronze into spiral rolls, plates, beads, rings and discs, these also found application in jewelry making. Axes and hatchets were also made from these materials. However, they only had a decorative function because they were too soft compared to stone tools. The practical application could only be realized later.
The range of available materials that were suitable for use in jewelry making (bijouterie) was constantly expanding. The use of rare and therefore valuable materials such as platinum, gold and silver made many pieces of jewelry a valuable item that was also used in barter transactions. Even today, especially in economically less developed countries, the gold jewelry that women always wear on their bodies is considered a material emergency reserve for the family. In Germany, it was common for Frisian fishermen and sailors to wear a gold earring until the 19th century. Its value was intended to finance their Christian burial if they drowned and were possibly washed up on a foreign coast.
As it happens, the perfection of personal hygiene began with the higher classes of society. This was also the case in ancient times. The bathing rooms that were common at this time offered the opportunity to bathe in goat and donkey milk. This application promised softer and more supple skin. In the ointment rooms, visitors could have themselves massaged with oils, honey, bran or even fruit extracts. Fragrance water, cream and make-up were also part of the body care program of the privileged.
In Christianity, which emerged later, it was considered improper to pay more attention to the body than necessary. People tended to equate physical beauty with vanity. It was even considered a sin not to leave your body as God created it. The concept of beauty here referred more to the “inner values” of a person. Because of this, oils, ointments and creams were henceforth used exclusively for medical treatment purposes.
During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the plague raged in Europe. People avoided contact with water because the causative agent of the disease was suspected to be in it. As a result, there was hardly any bathing or washing at all. Beer was usually chosen as the drink because it was considered safer than plain water due to its (germicidal) alcohol content. Instead of cleansing the body, the focus in more sophisticated circles was now on cosmetic facial treatments and perfuming the body. People of both sexes wore wigs made of blonde, curly hair as headdresses. It was also considered chic to make up your face with a thick layer of white powder. The powder used at the time sometimes contained lead, whose poison caused many skin diseases.
In classicism, concerns about the use of plain water gradually disappeared. Pastor Kneipp developed his water therapies during this time. Water pourings, baths, wraps and soap now became fashionable. The women now put on their make-up a little more discreetly.
At the end of the 19th century, industrial mass production of cosmetics became possible. This also gave people in the lower class of society access to personal care products. The noble restraint regarding make-up was now discarded again. Highly teased hair and scented wigs now became fashionable. Another novelty of this time: the deodorant.
The “golden 20s” of the 20th century were a heyday of body cult. Opportunities for saunas and skin treatment in beauty salons were created. The women who valued their contemporary appearance now applied a subtle powder, painted their lips red, framed their eyes with dark make-up, plucked their eyebrows very thin and wore the so-called “bobbed” hairstyle.
Since the post-war period, regular personal care and the use of cosmetic products have become an integral part of everyday life for most people in Germany. Today, most women in particular use make-up, lipstick, eye shadow, blush, contouring, etc. as a matter of course.
I hope that I have given you a little joy with my essays. I still have a few in my desk drawer and won't withhold them from you. If you want, you can take a look at my shopping tip in the meantime. Then please click here!
But there are also a number of specialist areas in the shoe trade, most of which have become independent apprenticeships. The clog maker was still around until shortly before the Second World War. It was quite common as wooden shoes were quite common until then. There are orthopedic shoemakers and orthopedic technicians for the production of shoes that are intended to meet a medical indication. The professions of shoe maker and shoe and leather goods stepper (also called leather processing specialist) are typical for industrial shoe production.
Other professions that emerged as a result of the industrialization of this craft include shoe modeller, shoe fitter, shoe technologist, last maker, upper leather cutter and upper leather maker. However, these professions are becoming rarer again in Germany as the best-selling footwear is imported.
As early as the fifth century BC, the professions of tanner and shoemaker separated. In ancient Greece people spoke of leather workers or leather tailors. In ancient Rome, shoemakers were called leather sewers (Sutor) or sandal makers (Sandalarius). The Calceolarius was the highest ranked here. He knew how to make Calceus a type of sandal that was more complex to produce. At the lowest end of the hierarchy scale were the Sutor Cerdo or Sutriballus, who in German would be called cobbler and the Altmacher, who bought up discarded shoes, repaired them and sold them again.
The shoemaker's tools have hardly changed for centuries. However, it was supplemented by some machines, such as the pneumatic press, in today's industrial shoe production. Hammer (for tapping work), pliers (for pulling out the nails), wide pliers (for pulling the shaft over the last), narrow pliers or folding pliers (for distributing the upper leather folds on the toe and heel), pinch knife (for trimming the soles and heels ), whetstone (for sharpening the pub), sharpening steel (for re-sharpening), rasp (here additionally wrapped with sandpaper, for working on the soles and heels), tack lifter (for pulling out the nails), pointed bone (for pressing down and opening the cut), Crack opener (for clearing the cut in the sole), crack scraper (for lowering the cut), cross awl (for pre-piercing the bottom seam holes), steel and pig bristles (as sewing needles), roughener (for preparing the adhesive surfaces), edge knife (for Deburring/deburring the sole edges), round awl/nail location (for pre-piercing the holes for the wooden nails), glass shards or scrapers (for removing the leather scars), cleaning wood (for pressing the sole edges) are the most important tools in shoe making.
Classic shoemaker workshops can hardly be found in cities these days. Many a shoe repair shop has remained. Most of the trained shoemakers work there today. Many new tools and materials have been added. Leather and rubber are hardly used anymore. However, many new adhesives and bonding techniques are necessary. There is significantly more sanding and gluing than sewing. The large, global shoe manufacturers now set the tone in this industry with their production methods.
The social meaning of clothing in Europe
In the earlier class society it was not up to everyone to decide how they wanted to dress. People of different classes were simply assigned the way in which they had to dress. So a form of uniformity. The first things that come to mind are courtly, bourgeois and rural clothing. The countless craftsmen's costumes (e.g. those of the carpenter) and the many religious costumes represent only a fraction of the diversity of this genre.
Nowadays, apart from the professional groups that are required to wear a uniform (fire brigade, military, police, etc.) or work clothes (medicine, nursing, law enforcement, officials, etc.) from the outset, such an official dress code no longer exists . However, in the various milieus of our society there are sometimes very binding conventions about what clothing is appropriate. In their free time, people also like to wear certain clothing styles and accessories that are intended to express their belonging to a scene (e.g. punk, popper, rocker, hippi, eco, etc.). This form of freedom previously only existed in carnival.
Clothing that is intended to strengthen cohesion in a group can also be found in private companies and organizations (divides), in religions (headscarf, burqa, cassock, gown, etc.), in special legal relationships (e.g. prisoners in prison) and in clubs (traditional costumes, Color, jersey). To name just a few examples here.
In addition to all these ranking functions, the original protective function of clothing, e.g. in adverse weather conditions, should not be forgotten. As a “second skin”, clothing protects and covers and also serves to express one’s own individuality. The purchase of a specific item of clothing can be done from very different perspectives.
Some people pay great attention to ensuring that the clothing corresponds to current fashion and/or comes from a popular brand. For the other, it is important that the functionality and feel-good components are consistent. There can be very different motives behind this, such as pragmatism, pursuit of pleasure, desire for integration through assimilation, expression of feelings and moods, desire for well-being, imposing behavior, expression of one's own lifestyle, expression of self-image about one's own social status, non-conformism, rebellion, etc.
There are three theories in science as to why humans have a need to clothe themselves. The oldest of these is the protection theory. In the 19th century, the shame theory became widespread in connection with Christian moral concepts. Last but not least, there is the jewelry theory, which states that you dress to deliberately attract attention in order to be admired. Today it is assumed that these theories should not be viewed side by side, but rather intertwined.
The History of Sleepwear
When it comes to nightwear, sooner or later the figure of the German Michel, who has been mentioned repeatedly since 1541, comes to mind with his nightcap. But unfortunately I couldn't find anything about whether the sleepwear at the time really looked like that.
The pajamas, which are widely used today, were discovered by the British colonial rulers in India. These were light trousers that were held together at the waist with a cord or cummerbund and a light shirt with a button placket. Then, in the middle of the 17th century, the British brought this clothing to mainland Europe. For a while, these pajamas were also accepted as leisure suits. But then this piece of clothing was forgotten again.
Only after 1870, when trade between India and Great Britain flourished again, did pajamas largely replace nightgowns as sleepwear until the end of the First World War. Thanks to colonial trade in Europe, silk and cotton, as comfortable fabrics, were now sufficiently available for production. The term pajama is derived from the Persian word “پايجامه / pāīdschāma / trousers”.
Today's pajamas consist of leg-length, wide-cut trousers and a long-sleeved top. This is often cut like a T-shirt and no longer has buttons. The pants are held on the body by an elastic band. There are also versions with short sleeves or legs, these are often referred to as 'shorty'. The materials are diverse: cotton, merino wool, flannel, jersey, terry cloth, silk or satin and numerous blends (cotton with viscose or with polyester) are established textile fabrics.
Recently, it has become fashionable to wear pajamas in public as a lifestyle outfit. But this isn't really new, because there have been a few attempts in the past, especially by celebrities, to establish the "pyjamas" in public: the fashion designer Coco Chanel made it popular in Juan-les-Pins in France in the 1920s Riviera caused a stir with her public appearances in “beach pajamas,” consisting of a loose shirt and fluttery pants. She was then banned from entering the local casino in this look. - When Bette Davis wore her husband's pajama top as a nightgown in the 1942 film “Old Acquaintance,” it caused quite a stir. After the film's premiere, men's sleepwear for women was a passing trend. - Playboy publisher Hugh Hefner is also said to have practiced the “out of bed” look in public. Apparently as an act of rebellion against the established dress norm and prudery.
In some areas, such as Shanghai, from the 1970s onwards it became common to wear pajamas around the neighborhood and also when shopping. At the 2010 World Expo, the Chinese government made great efforts to stop this “uncivilized” custom. The Chinese adopted pajamas from the West as a symbol of wealth and coolness. In England, where this was common practice for a long time, the department store chain 'Tesco' banned its customers from wearing pajamas.
The history of jewelry
Jewelry is an ornamental item that women and men wear on their bodies or clothing. It is primarily used to increase the attractiveness or status of a person within a society or group or to visibly display the status they have already achieved. One thinks in particular of the crown jewels of the ruling families. On the one hand, jewelry is tied to the fascination of the material, such as the metal with its shine or the value, color and cut of the gemstone used, and on the other hand to the shape of the jewelry and the quality of the workmanship.
For as long as humans have existed, they have been using objects, such as shells, to decorate themselves. Research suggests that this has been going on for 100,000 years. In the Paleolithic period there were said to have been necklaces in the form of simple and multi-link necklaces. In the Stone Age, people made their necklaces from shells and snail shells, animal teeth, fish vertebrae and beads. Amber has also been made into jewelry. When it became possible to process copper and bronze into spiral rolls, plates, beads, rings and discs, these also found application in jewelry making. Axes and hatchets were also made from these materials. However, they only had a decorative function because they were too soft compared to stone tools. The practical application could only be realized later.
The range of available materials that were suitable for use in jewelry making (bijouterie) was constantly expanding. The use of rare and therefore valuable materials such as platinum, gold and silver made many pieces of jewelry a valuable item that was also used in barter transactions. Even today, especially in economically less developed countries, the gold jewelry that women always wear on their bodies is considered a material emergency reserve for the family. In Germany, it was common for Frisian fishermen and sailors to wear a gold earring until the 19th century. Its value was intended to finance their Christian burial if they drowned and were possibly washed up on a foreign coast.
History of personal care in Europe
As it happens, the perfection of personal hygiene began with the higher classes of society. This was also the case in ancient times. The bathing rooms that were common at this time offered the opportunity to bathe in goat and donkey milk. This application promised softer and more supple skin. In the ointment rooms, visitors could have themselves massaged with oils, honey, bran or even fruit extracts. Fragrance water, cream and make-up were also part of the body care program of the privileged.
In Christianity, which emerged later, it was considered improper to pay more attention to the body than necessary. People tended to equate physical beauty with vanity. It was even considered a sin not to leave your body as God created it. The concept of beauty here referred more to the “inner values” of a person. Because of this, oils, ointments and creams were henceforth used exclusively for medical treatment purposes.
During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the plague raged in Europe. People avoided contact with water because the causative agent of the disease was suspected to be in it. As a result, there was hardly any bathing or washing at all. Beer was usually chosen as the drink because it was considered safer than plain water due to its (germicidal) alcohol content. Instead of cleansing the body, the focus in more sophisticated circles was now on cosmetic facial treatments and perfuming the body. People of both sexes wore wigs made of blonde, curly hair as headdresses. It was also considered chic to make up your face with a thick layer of white powder. The powder used at the time sometimes contained lead, whose poison caused many skin diseases.
In classicism, concerns about the use of plain water gradually disappeared. Pastor Kneipp developed his water therapies during this time. Water pourings, baths, wraps and soap now became fashionable. The women now put on their make-up a little more discreetly.
At the end of the 19th century, industrial mass production of cosmetics became possible. This also gave people in the lower class of society access to personal care products. The noble restraint regarding make-up was now discarded again. Highly teased hair and scented wigs now became fashionable. Another novelty of this time: the deodorant.
The “golden 20s” of the 20th century were a heyday of body cult. Opportunities for saunas and skin treatment in beauty salons were created. The women who valued their contemporary appearance now applied a subtle powder, painted their lips red, framed their eyes with dark make-up, plucked their eyebrows very thin and wore the so-called “bobbed” hairstyle.
Since the post-war period, regular personal care and the use of cosmetic products have become an integral part of everyday life for most people in Germany. Today, most women in particular use make-up, lipstick, eye shadow, blush, contouring, etc. as a matter of course.
I hope that I have given you a little joy with my essays. I still have a few in my desk drawer and won't withhold them from you. If you want, you can take a look at my shopping tip in the meantime. Then please click here!
Your Lisa
